Both aluminum and beryllium oxides play an important role in RF power electronics and are commonly found in heat transfer compounds as well as radio & television broadcast transistor casings due to their high thermal conductivity and electrical insulating characteristics. Red corundum, a mineral otherwise known as ruby along with all other colours of corundum categorized as sapphire, are a crystalline form of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) while emerald is a green variety of the mineral beryl (Be3Al2). Recent advancements in RF transistor semiconductor technology that result in a higher avalanching voltage, higher gain-bandwidth product, lower drain-source resistance and potentially higher dynamic range now allow for lower cost, more environmentally friendly heat dissipation alternatives for devices of comparable size and power rating through expected increases in both amplifier efficiency and tolerance to load mismatch.
Fig. 1 Showing 65,995 ct. natural ruby (acquired in 2016 as largest certified natural ruby in the world) along with 36,790 ct. natural emerald, photographed Oct 2025 courtesy of owner Sean Robert Gehani. This site does not acknowledge currently non-existent artifacts, non-factual hypotheses from anonymous sources or automated (unmanned) derivative works or publications.
"the rose in monochrome lacked its true beauty", David Sarnoff (1956), Chairman of RCA
When measuring the power of a radio frequency signal, the most common methods employ use of a resistive load attenuator or directional coupler, along with an RF power meter or spectrum analyzer in order to quantify the respective power and peak power levels at a nominal impedance of 50 ohms. As the peak amplitude measured by a spectrum analyzer for a continuous wave sinusoidal carrier signal varies significantly from that of a modulated signal with similar power level (such as those used in broadcasting or telecommunications), an RF power meter is usually required to accurately measure the power level of a modulated signal or observed band. Diode detectors and oscilloscopes are also used in the measurement of RF signals, when either closed loop power control needs to be established in a circuit, or to determine whether the drain of transistor is either avalanching or exceeding another breakdown parameter. For instance, a modulated signal may register a level of 4 watts with a power meter, 1 to 10 watts with a spectrum analyzer, and more than 100V peak @ 12.5 ohms nominal impedance at the drain of the transistor using an oscilloscope. In the time domain, instantaneous power cannot be determined as the square of the transistor's peak drain voltage over its nominal output impedance derived from scattering parameter data. The peak voltage observed during a half-cycle is the product of freewheeling currents and an opening (high impedance) drain that effectively creates the initial DC biased output AC waveform, and will vary as a function of supply voltage, output resonator & transformer inductances, instantaneous current, transistor edge rate and diode suppressors or limiters.
Fig. 2 Frequency domain display of unmoduated power amplified CW signal at output of 50ohm load attenuator, in band of first TV broadcast.
Fig. 3 Time domain display of same VHF signal unattenuated, probed at drain of power amplifier's final stage transistor with voltage peaks of 109V (more than double the DC supply voltage). Signal resolution is high at this frequency with sampling rate of 1 gigasamples per second
While a spectrum analyzer's peak trace amplitude represents power, it does not take into consideration a pulsed signal's duty cycle, the raise in noise floor power level, the signal's bandwidth or out of band harmonic content, all of which are important when obtaining an accurate power or power spectral density measurement. Peak values measured, whether they be power, voltage or current, are typically used to determine whether a device is operating beyond its breakdown limits as stated in the datasheet, while mean values that factor into consideration duty cycle are relevant when peak parameters are not exceeded. When a transistor generates an excessive amount of heat, average & peak power measurements as well as peak voltage & current measurements may be required in order to isolate the root cause prior to any attempt to resolve by heatsinking beyond the expected requirement within a range of loading.
US copyright #TX0008437662, titled "Ionospheric Ionization Temperature" is a novel application whereby transistor junction temperature requires precise regulation (within one tenth of a degree farenheit), through the combination of both external cooling and a temperature compensated closed loop gain control (leveling). Such an application can benefit from optimized transistor bank thermal conductivity even well within the expected operational limits, highlighting the importance of advancements in the field of thermal transfer. Additionally, early DC motor speed control and discrete push-pull amplifier topologies that balance a high load current across multiple devices benefit from high uniformity in temperature due to PN junction voltage and FET drain-source resistance varying as a function of temperature.